Chronic pain is a significant health issue in Australia, affecting approximately 1 in 5 individuals aged 45 and over. Traditional pain management strategies often rely on medications like opioids, which, while effective, carry risks of addiction and adverse side effects. This has led researchers to explore alternative treatments, including compounds derived from plants such as cannabis.
Terpenes are aromatic compounds found in many plants, including cannabis. They are responsible for the distinct scents of various plants and have been studied for their potential therapeutic properties. Certain terpenes have demonstrated anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects, suggesting they may play a role in pain relief.
What did the study find?
The study, which was published in the journal Pharmacological Reports, analysed the impact of four terpenes that are found in moderate and high levels in the Cannabis sativa plant—geraniol, linalool, beta-caryophyllene and alpha-humulene.
The researchers then applied the terpenes to mouse models of post-operative pain and fibromyalgia, a disorder that causes widespread musculoskeletal pain. The scientists discovered that all of these compounds provided a high amount of pain relief, although gerniol delivered the most.
“Our research suggests that terpenes should be broadly effective for chronic pain relief,” says study co-author John M. Streicher.
What are terpenes?
Terpenes are naturally occurring compounds found in the leaves, flowers and stems of plants, says toxicologist Dr Johnson-Arbor. “Terpenes are a primary component of plant-based essential oils and are largely responsible for the unique scents of different oils,” she adds.
While terpenes appear across many plant species, cannabis plants are especially rich in them—containing more than 100 distinct terpenes, notes Dr David Edwards.
“Different strains of cannabis contain unique terpene combinations, which contribute to the distinctive aromas of each type,” says Dr Johnson-Arbor. But the quantity and type of terpenes can vary significantly, adds associate professor of pharmacology and toxicology Dr Jamie Alan.
Concerned about THC in cannabis-derived compounds? It’s worth noting that terpenes can be sourced from many plants—not just cannabis. “Terpenes, including geraniol, are present in a range of plants,” says Streicher. “Some manufacturers extract terpenes from non-cannabis sources, which would be THC-free. and even cannabis-derived terpenes can be purified to remove THC.”
Terpenes have been associated with effects like pain relief, sedation and anti-inflammatory action, according to Streicher.
How do they work in the body?
Terpenes can influence the body in several ways. “Linalool, for example—a key component in lavender essential oil—is linked to calming effects, improved sleep and relaxation,” says Dr Johnson-Arbor. Pinene has been studied for its potential benefits on digestion and cognitive function, while myrcene may ease joint pain and inflammation.
“Though research into the clinical applications of terpenes is still emerging, animal studies suggest they may offer several therapeutic effects,” she says.
Streicher agrees, noting that terpenes appear to act on multiple systems in the body—including the endocannabinoid system, which helps regulate memory, mood, sleep and temperature.
In their research on pain, Streicher’s team discovered that terpenes block a protein receptor known as the adenosine A2A receptor—an action that appears to reduce pain. “Interestingly, caffeine also interacts with these receptors,” Dr Alan adds.
Still, Streicher cautions that science is only beginning to uncover how terpenes work at a molecular level. “We’re continuing to explore exactly how they affect these pathways,” he says.
How might terpenes be used for pain relief?
“Certain terpenes found in cannabis—like geraniol, linalool and humulene—appear to act on receptors in the brain and spinal cord to help relieve pain,” explains Dr Johnson-Arbor.
Exactly how best to use them in humans, however, is still under investigation. “The simplest method is in liquid form, typically held under the tongue for a few minutes,” says Streicher. “But we’re also actively researching other delivery methods, including gummies, transdermal patches and vapourised forms for inhalation.”
There’s still a lot we don’t know, says Dr Alan. “We haven’t yet determined which terpenes are most effective, what the ideal dose is or how often they should be taken.”
Safety concerns with using terpenes
As with many plant-based compounds, the main concern is the potential for allergic reactions or sensitivities, says Dr Edwards. “If a compound is concentrated enough, there’s always the chance it could trigger unexpected effects.”
Because most research has been conducted on animals, it’s still unclear what the long-term effects or risks may be in humans, Dr Johnson-Arbor notes.
That said, early signs are promising. Streicher says his team has not observed any toxic or addictive side effects in their studies on terpene use for pain. “Importantly, terpenes like beta-caryophyllene are classified as Generally Recognised as Safe, which supports their overall safety in humans,” he says.
Can you get and use terpenes now?
CBD oil, which contains terpenes, is available in Australian jurisdictions where cannabis products are legally prescribed. Dr Edwards notes that terpene-rich tinctures, gummies and topical creams may be accessible through regulated medical cannabis programs—but cautions against using them without professional guidance.
“Speak to your doctor first,” he says. “If you’ve exhausted other treatment options, terpenes may be a safer alternative to opioids.”
Still, the effects of cannabis-derived terpenes are not fully understood. “It’s essential to talk with your healthcare provider about the possible benefits and risks if you’re considering this approach to pain management,” says Dr Johnson-Arbor.
Streicher agrees. “Terpenes are commercially available, but they exist in a largely unregulated space, so quality and purity can vary widely between suppliers,” he warns. His research team is continuing to study the effects of terpenes, including through clinical trials.
“In the pain management space, we’re cautiously optimistic that these compounds could offer genuine benefits,” Dr Edwards adds.
Newsletter
